1. Lueck, J. (2012). Friend-zone with benefits: The parasocial advertising of Kim Kardashian. Journal of Marketing Communications, 21(2), pp.91-109.
This data-centric study focuses on digital advertising (mostly that of social media), analysing the relationship and communication platforms that currently operate between celebrities and their extended audiences. The article uses Kim Kardashian as a prime example of celebrity endorsement in the digital age. The type of advertising messages constructed by brands as well as the subsequent celebrity-audience interaction is analysed against data received from convenience sampling within the time frame of 1 April 2011–31 May 2011. The study aims to decipher whether the notion of Parasocial Interaction – and therefore the use of celebrity and social media influencers – could improve the effectiveness of digital advertising, resulting in proven sales. Results showed that brand endorsements were typically interwoven with personal stories, making these endorsements increasingly native and relatable across platforms. It was also noticed that female approval for endorsement posts was imminent and imperative, proving that Horton and Wohl’s theory of Parasocial Interaction does in fact take place between the celebrities, social media influencers, and audiences. It is drawn from the the results that celebrity endorsements on social (vs traditional media platforms) are a legitimate “advertising vehicle”, with predominantly positive audience feedback. It is subsequently implied that brands should be adapting the notion of Parasocial Interaction in order to create “deeper, personal connections with consumers in favorable easy-to access social environments”.
This is a very strong study which proves the impact of online and celebrity influencers across social media (my group’s core focus), although is outdated due to the dynamic nature of the social media realm. Since this study was conducted in 2011, we have seen the exponential growth of Instagram, Snapchat, and Kim’s younger (and debatably more viral) sister, Kylie Jenner.
2. Horton, D. and Wohl, R. (1956). Mass Communication and Parasocial Interaction: Observations on Intimacy at a Distance. Psychiatry. Vol. 19, pp. 215-229.
Donald Horton and Richard Wohl’s ‘para-social interaction’ theory from ‘Mass Communication and Parasocial Interaction: Observations on Intimacy at a Distance’, is iconic in the academic discussion of fan interaction with new media platforms. Written in 1956 by the University of Chicago scholars, the theory itself was produced decades before the invention and subsequent popularity of the internet, and refers to the “new mass media” of the 50’s – radio, television and film. Despite the fact that their research article was composed prior to the existence of social media, their main arguments are more potent and relevant then ever to current new media. In their dissertation, ‘Mass Communication and Para-Social interaction: Observations on Intimacy at a Distance’, Horton and Wohl discuss the way by which the one-sided relationship between media personae and their fans has increased in gravitas as media technologies have changed the definition of proximity within the entertainment industry. This relationship is predominantly perceived negatively by the authors, who claim it as a “ramification of intimacy”, stating that audiences inadvertently form deep and quasi-realistic emotional relationships with representations of media personalities, creating an illusion of “intimacy at a distance”.
The authors explain how audiences of new media are somewhat hoaxed into believing they are experiencing real social interactions, whereby instead, they’re being perceived by professional camera work, scripts and studio sets used to fine-tune a celebrity’s performance to the conditioned reactions of the audience. This intentional construction of new media is seen by Horton and Wohl to minimize the notion that the interactions taking place are merely one-sided. They criticize that television talk shows (or, in adaption to modern new media, vlogs), are a platform for personalities to converse matters beyond their own personal interest or expertise, creating a disillusioned blurring of the line between fiction and reality, and resulting in mass audiences having more respect and veneration for the opinions of celebrities rather than acknowledged authorities. Their take on the effect of mass media is somewhat reminiscent to that of the bullet/hypodermic needle theory, and due to this shows slight weakness in relativity to modern media.
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3. Scheiner McClain, A. (2013). Social Media. In: Keeping Up the Kardashian Brand : Celebrity, Materialism, and Sexuality. Blue Ridge Summit: Lexington Books, pp.66-96.
This chapter from ‘Keeping Up the Kardashian Brand: Celebrity, Materialism, and Sexuality’ explores how Kim Kardashian has used seven different social media narratives in order to successfully position herself and her brand across old and new media platforms. The seven narratives author Amanda Scheiner McClain touches on includes family and authenticity, celebrity, business, behind the scenes, beauty, social media, and the combined family/business/celebrity. There are many potent ideas discussed by the author while referencing prior research, such as the way be which the world is understood and consumed through online narrative, the fostering of fan-celebrity relationships, the illusion of intimacy, bloggers as “the internet’s new storytellers”, “the public version of the private self” and entrepreneurialism and self-branding online (in additional to many more strong considerations).
Scheiner McClain draws great comparisons between television and social media, even claiming that reality television is “at the forefront of the convergence of broadcast television and networking technologies. The author also focuses on bankability and revenue of the Kardashian’s online influence, an aspect which has been amplified since the construction of this article.
While detailed and succinct, it is important to note that this piece was published in 2013, before mobile gam Kim Kardashian Hollywood, the Kardashian/Jenner’s’ paid apps, before Kylie Jenner hit puberty and launched her lip kits, and before Snapchat was as big as it currently is. Twitter takes a large focus in the chapter, a platform which is on a user decline and has been overtaken in popularity by Facebook, Instagram and Snapchat.
4. Edwards, L.H. (2012) Transmedia Storytelling, Corporate Synergy, and Audience Expression. Global Media Journal, vol. 12, pp. 1-12.
This article focuses on transmedia storytelling and the way by which it creates multi-platform trends, enables ‘corporate synergy’ and allows for audience-generated participatory culture in a world of convergence culture and Kardashians. In his article, Edwards reflects on how recent media theory has considered the transmedia storytelling trends in current rotation. A few key case studies are analysed, with emphasis on the Kardashian empire. Rather than staying exclusive to social media, Edwards takes into consideration a multitude of platforms external to the TV screen, such as books, fan-centered websites, mobile phone applications, online games, and music albums and tours.
The author touches on the way by which brands and networks have “monetized fandom practices and mainstreamed them” into marketing operations, an important factor in analysing branding and celebrity in the current and future digital space.
As per many articles of the like, this piece was published in 2012, and due to the nature of the industry, is now somewhat outdated in its content. While the general principals remain, there are many more contributing factors to online enterprise, branding and ‘corporate synergy’ since the construction of this article.
5. Marshall, D. (2014). Introduction: Celebrity in the Digital Era: A New Public Intimacy. In: Celebrity and Power: Fame in Contemporary Culture, 2nd ed. University of Minnesota Press, p.xi-xxxvii.
This chapter is a revisited introduction and addition to the first edition of this book from 1997. The author reflects on the way in which the “public sphere has been transformed” since the initial construction of his book, and how the practices of popular culture have been “dramatically refracted through online culture” and subsequently, celebrity culture. Marshall has a particular focus throughout the chapter on the presentation of self, and the importance of persona studies in the consideration of celebrity impact.
The author cross-references Horton and Wohl’s parasocial interaction, while bringing to light the oxymoronic notion of public intimacy. From this, the theme of ‘presentational media’ is constructed, which Marshall decodes from the presence of today’s narcissistic ‘selfie’ culture, whereby metrics of fame and success have come to depend on Twitter followers, YouTube views, viral hashtags and Facebook friends. Key principles of social media and celebrity revolve around the presentation of the self, a key consideration when exploring these topics.
While the full book is outdated, this chapter provides fantastic insight into the progression of celebrity culture and the way by which social media has affected it.
