This took me a while to work through, because:

1. It’s crazy long.
2. I was watching Elementary at the same time.

Let’s do some dot points!

• Chris Argyris is an interesting person
• Starting point: Argyris and Schön’s argument that people have mental maps with regard to how they act in situations, which involves the way they plan, implement and review their actions. These maps guide people’s actions rather than specific theories.
• One way of looking at it: split between theory and action. Another way: two theories of action are involved, expoused theory and theory-in-use.
• Distinction between these two theories: theories implicit in what we do as practitioners and managers, and those which we call on to speak of our actions to others.
• First: theories-in-use: govern actual behaviour and tend to be tacit structures. Relation to action like: “the relation of grammar-in-use to speech”. Includes assumptions. Words used to convey what we do or what we would like others to think we do. Expoused theory.
• Basically, what people say they will do and what they actually do is different.
• Allows us to ask questions about how the two theories are congruent.

To fully appreciate theory-in-use, we require a model of the processes involved. Three elements:

one. Governing variables

Dimensions that people are trying to keep within acceptable limits. Any action is likely to impact upon a number of such variables – any situation can trigger a trade-off among governing variables.

two. Action strategies

The moves and plans used by people to keep their governing values within acceptable range.

three. Consequences

What happens as a result of an action. Can be both intended and unintended. Can be for the self and/or the others.

Where consequences of the strategy used = what the person wanted, theory-in-use is confirmed. (Match between intention and outcome.) There may be a mismatch between intention and outcome though.

Single-loop and double-loop learning

For Argyris and Schön, learning involves the detection and correction of errors.

When stuff goes wrong, many people look for another strategy rather than questioning: “given or chosen goals, values, plans and rules are operationalised”. This is single-loop learning.”

Alternatively, one could question the governing variables themselves, described as double-loop learning.

Single-loop learning: seems to be present when goals, values, frameworks and (sometimes) strategies, are taken for granted. Involves following routines and “some sort of preset plan”. Less risky for individual and organisation, affording greater control.

Double-loop learning: involves questioning the role of the framing and learning systems which underlie actual goals and strategies. More creative and reflexive, and involves consideration of notions of the good. Reflection here more fundamental.

Organisational learning

Each member of an organisation constructs his or her own representation or image of the theory-in-use. Picture is always incomplete, thus people are always working to add pieces to get a view of the whole.

Organisational effort is the formulation and implementation of an intervention strategy. This involves the “interventionist” moving through six phases of work:

1. Mapping the problem as clients see it: Includes factors and relationships that define the problem, and relationship with the living systems of the organisation.
2. The internalisation of the map by clients: Through inquiry and confrontation the interventionists work with clients to develop a map for which clients can accept responsibility. Also needs to be comprehensive.
3. Test the model: Involves looking at what “testable predictions” can be derived from the map, and looking to practice and history to see if the predictions stand up. If they don’t, the map should be modified.
4. Invent solutions: simulate them to explore possible impact.
5. Produce the intervention
6. Study the impact: Allows for correction of errors as well as generating knowledge for future designs. If things work well under conditions specified by the model, the map isn’t disconfirmed.

Now I’m going to start on the next one.