Assignment 1- Annotated Bibliography
Name: Isabella Susnica s3718938

I declare that in submitting all work for this assessment I have read, understood and agree to the content and expectations of the assessment declaration – https://www.rmit.edu.au/students/support-and-facilities/student-support/equitable-learning-services

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Annotated Bibliography

Selected text 1 – Networks (word count 664)

Lister, M, Dovey, J, Giddings, S, Grant, I & Kelly, K 2009, New Media: A Critical Introduction, 2nd edn, Routledge, New York.

Sections: (pp 163-169, 197-200, 204-209, 221-232.)

The book is described as an introduction for students learning about new media. Specifically, the book is used to provoke questioning of the internet and how it has become networked. Consequently, the book argues that the way people use the internet is being shaped by ‘tensions’. That there are tensions between culture and commerce. This argument is fueled by sub-arguments; that these tensions have arisen since Web 2.0 was introduced, that the ‘Long Tail’ theory has provoked niche marketing, and that user-generated content isn’t completely under control of the users.

The book begins by arguing that the internet can be viewed through the lens of Web 2.0, therefore acknowledging that everyone has become networked within it, but that is simultaneously enabled new media to develop with commercial interests in mind. Therefore, ‘tensions’ between culture and commerce have emerged in the new media age. This argument is presented through subheadings such as: ‘What is the Internet?’ and ‘Historicising net studies’. The book provides a timeline of the internet’s development, therefore contributing to the notion that the internet is changing and so, it is plausible that commercial interests may in fact be a possibility. The book uses the concept of Web 2.0 by Tim O’Reilly and the stances of tech gurus on the online environment to imply that the work of others echoes the notion that user input has led to a commercialised media landscape. Furthermore, this is used as a gateway to the example of Wikipedia. The book suggests that as the web becomes more user friendly such as allowing users to contribute to the Wikipedia database, the web and in this case Wikipedia, transcends to a commodified space such as with the introduction of ‘Wikinomics’.

The book goes on to argue that this commodified space of new media isn’t generalised like mass media but is incredibly specific to each user of the web. Therefore, the book frames this argument within Chris Anderson’s theory of the ‘Long Tail’. The web is described as being highly networked and so, advertisers can target niche groups of people. The ‘Long Tail’ highlights that the web differs from mass media by which advertisements no longer need to have a large target audience because they can achieve the same results from targeting more specific audiences. The book builds on this theory to support their argument. That because advertisements are increasingly targeted, the user must navigate the web whilst being aware of both the commercial and cultural tensions.

Finally, the book shifts focus onto the users themselves and suggests that user-generated content whilst superficially is under control of the user, is still influenced by commercial interests. The book delivers this argument through an exploration of various case studies. The case studies reveal that companies build relationships with fans to allow the fans to shape production. The book however, flips these real life examples to provide the basis of the argument that users are willingly participating in an ‘exploitation of free labour’. In turn, the book strives to inform the user that ulterior motives may be present thereby highlighting the presence of tensions between commerce and culture.

Ultimately, the book argues that people must be aware of the ever-changing online environment as tensions between commerce and culture are becoming ingrained into online networks. This is useful to the course prompt as it helps define what the network is that Instagram functions within. That users of Instagram must be aware that there isn’t only one way to author, publish and distribute within Instagram due to the changing network that now encompasses commercialisation. Whilst the book was published 10 years ago, it is still relevant today in order to understand the shift from traditional to digital media markets. But, being 10 years old it is published prior to the boom of ‘influencers’ and other online workers and so, it lacks in addressing how a content producer looking to make money on the internet should navigate through the cultural and commercial tensions.

 

 

Selected text 2 – Affordances (word count 572)

Norman, D.A 1998, The Design of Everyday Things, Basic Book, New York.

Sections: pp. vii-xv, 1-13, 81-87, 177-186.

This book is the alternative version to the book The Psychology of Everyday Things, by the same author. In this book, the focus is put on ‘design’. The book explores what everyday objects can tell us about what makes an appropriate or flawed design. In turn, the book argues that the key umbrella terms that contribute to understanding design are affordances and constraints. These are explored in various ways thereby substantiating the argument that affordances and constraints are necessary to understand design.

The book begins by arguing that when an object is difficult to use, it is not due to the user but is due to the designer. Subsequently, the design needs to be indicative of its intended function. Meaning that the design must consider ‘visibility’. To communicate this argument, the book is highly reflective. Many anecdotes are used to illustrate the argument. For example, that in many circumstances, there can be a fault with an object. The book proceeds to make judgement about design based upon these observations. The judgement made is that ‘visibility’ is a vital principle of design. This is explored through many examples such as the design of a door. The example of the door explains that whilst a design may be sleek, if handles are not visible, then whoever is using it will be unsure of how to open it. Visibility is then aligned with affordances to introduce the notion that designs must incorporate the necessary clues to guide a person using an object to use it in the desired way.

The book then argues that affordances and constraints can be categorised and thus, provide the guidelines for understanding the design of an object. The book finds that affordances ‘suggest the range of possibilities’ whilst constraints ‘limit the number of alternatives’. Constraints are broken down further into four types. That they are physical, semantic, cultural or logical. These categories are discovered through the findings made from an experiment the book carried out in which people were instructed to make a Lego figure without any instructions. Subsequently, the book aims to instil that these four types of constraints are what will provide the basis of unpacking what any objects intended purpose is.

The book goes on to explore how these ideas can be played out in a more complex object. Computers are the chosen example to suffice the argument that through applying knowledge of affordances and constraints, an object can be more user-friendly. Therefore, this argument is broken into two parts. The first being ‘how to do things wrong’ which presents the problem and then ‘it’s not too late to do things right’ which provides the solution. The book proposes that there is a possibility to increase usability of computers if programmers and designers can ensure their intended affordances are made clear as guided by constraints.

Overall, the book is used to set foundations for the claim that affordances and constraints are crucial to the design of objects as the more attention that is payed to them, the more an object is easily useable. In turn this is useful to the prompt as it suggests the scope of affordances that are intended for Instagram when authoring, publishing and distributing content on the platform. This book lacks input of theories and facts and so it is more useful as a book to provoke discussion as opposed to being used as a definitive answer to how objects should be designed.

 

 

Selected text 3- Social Media (word count 680)

Hinton, S & Hjorth, L 2013, Understanding Social Media. Sage Publications, London 2013.

Section: pp. 1-31

This book tackles the term social media in a loose way. Rather than social media being explored through its usual connotations such as how popular social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram are being used, the term is used as a springboard to explore how online media functions. In turn, the book takes an expository approach to argue that online media is being shaped by users whilst simultaneously shaping the users themselves. In turn, the book uses the work of many academics to add scope to the issue at hand and to encourage the reader to reflect on the mentioned points.

The book begins by focusing in on the terms Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 in order to argue that the shift from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 is due to commercial interests. That Web 2.0 should be looked at as ‘a model for business.’ In order to substantiate this claim, the book firstly provides in-depth information regarding the beginnings of the internet and web. Jargon is heavily used in this section to indicate the web’s beginning as ‘a sealed package to audiences’. Then, Web 2.0 is argued to be a progression of Web 1.0 due to businesses changing their perspective of the web. Web 2.0 is then referred to as an online space that provides opportunities to make money. The book embeds this argument within the theories of academics such as Tim O’Reilly and Darcy DiNucci who are said to be the first people to introduce the notion of Web 2.0. Furthermore, examples such as the ‘rise of the dotcoms’ and measurable effects of the rise of Web 2.0 on the stock market. The context that Web 2.0 is used in this book then sets up the next main argument.

The web is argued to be a space where there is control and freedom. Online media and social media has enabled both to simultaneously exist. But, these two states are not in balance and so, tensions have arisen from these two states. The book argues this by posing the question ‘Using or Being Used?’ Then, this is further broken down into the subheadings ‘Social Media as Empowering’ and ‘Social Media as Control.’ This highlights the books intention of arguing that there are two ways to look at online media. The book goes on to suggest that as we become more dependent on the internet, we become more susceptible to being controlled by the internet. The book inserts Wendy Chun’s work to amplify their argument. Wendy Chun finds that companies develop an ‘illusion of control’ that is given to the user. What this means is that as people are able to curate their own existence online with a sense of freedom such through publishing on various social media platforms. But, this is the ‘illusion of control’ as instead, users are controlled as they are processed into data. Due to many companies being dependent on advertisements for their source of income, by providing control to the user, the company can collect information about the user which will elicit targeted advertisements. In turn, control and freedom is a kind of trade-off. Therefore, the book urges people to reflect upon how the online environment is changing.

Overall, the book provides many theories about the online environment. That in order to understand social media, one must first understand that it is complex. Due to the complexity of the issue, a possible limitation of this book is that it can be intimidating. The book very quickly incorporates complex theories within the text and so, can be challenging to understand. This book is still however, relevant to the course prompt. The reason being that it suggests that when interacting with the online environment, one must be aware of the presence of commercial motives. In turn, this suggests that the ability to author, publish and distribute on Instagram isn’t the same for everyone as posts can be sponsored and therefore promoted differently. Therefore, suggesting that there are different affordances at work on the same platform.