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Moving into the 1990s, an era on the cusp of a new millennial, much of the music was focussed upon new technologies, and the social and cultural progression that came with it. At the forefront of the 1990s was Mariah Carey, whose singing talents and prolific writing made her the top-selling artist of the 90s and one of the top three most commercially successful artists of all time, grouped together with Elvis Presley and the Beatles. Mariah Carey’s rise to fame throughout the 90s coincides with the movement of third wave feminism, which strove to re-structure feminism and bring intersectionality to the fore; addressing issues of sexuality, race and the binary construction of gender. A woman of African American and Irish descent, Carey’s undeniable presence within the music industry is telling, and prescient of further gains that were to be made by the communities she represented.

As noted by Rolling Stone editor, Jann S. Wenner, ‘it [was] obvious… that the major music story of 1997 was the rise of women artists.’ Although between 1979 and 1984, female artists averaged just 20% of all top 50 hits, female artists were beginning to become more prominent figures in music, paving the way for future women.

Whilst the diversity of themes within Carey’s music represents femininity with complexity, it ultimately exists within the broader patriarchal framework that pervaded the time, and is hence reflective of this. Many of Mariah Carey’s songs are centered around love, or geared towards heterosexual relationships, as they pine over men. As asserted by sociomusicoligist, Simon Frith, the prevalence of such themes within music work to repress female sexuality by interpreting it through the code of romance. The ubiquity of these themes in music contribute to the one dimensional representation of women as passive beings, in which female aspirations are subordinately channeled solely towards the attainment of a heterosexual relationship. However; converse to this is the overt sexuality present in such songs as ‘Touch My Body,’ and empowerment of those such as ‘Make It Happen,’ which subvert the common passive portrayal of women, through the ownership of female sexual identity, as Carey assertively directs precisely what is to happen, rather than being passive to the wishes of a man and conforming to patriarchal representations of gender through this. Such songs can be connected to the wider societal trends of female empowerment that were prevalent within society at the time, thereby reflecting the gains of third wave feminism within them, and furthering the movement through its promotion.

Alternately however, sociologists such as Jean Baudrillard, contest that such thinking may constitute false consciousness, as the supposedly reclaimed sexuality of Carey’s songs simply present a false sense of self-determination, and in actuality, work to perpetuate misogynistic definitions of femininity by conforming to the male gaze, as they ultimately exist within the dominant ideological framework of patriarchal society, and this construction of society is reflected in her music. As asserted by popular music academic Nicola Dibben, however, while this may be true ‘by working within the forms of the dominant ideology, compromised materials [such as Carey’s music] may allow listeners to situate themselves amid competing ideological forces in a way that reflects the tensions of lived experience,’ thereby ultimately working to further the movement of gender equality, by conveying the true complexity inherent in gender and sexuality.

Whilst reflecting the third wave feminist movement and current society through the representation of gender and sexuality in her music, Mariah Carey also engages with discourse surrounding ethnicity through the intersectional feminism of the 90s, which strove to advance the position of minoritised women of colour in society. As Nicola Dibben writes ‘musical materials are socially and historically constituted: [they] have a ‘history of use’ such that particular materials come to be associated with, and take on the meanings of, particular musical and social contexts and functions.’ Carey’s prominent blend of pop-gospel vocalisations with R&B, along with her seminal collaborations with rap artists harks back to her roots and the deep-seated cultural history connected with rhythm and blues and rap music. This refusal to shy away from her African American heritage in her music foregrounded the contributions of black artists throughout history, and shone a light on talent that had historically been overlooked or co-opted and popularized by white individuals, more often than not, white men. Through this, Carey refused to perpetuate what feminist writer Bell Hooks refers to as the ‘commodification of otherness,’ wherein ‘ethnicity becomes spice, seasoning that can liven up the dull dish that is mainstream white culture.’ The construction of Carey’s music and musical artefacts, including music videos, did much to further the objectives of third wave feminism, facilitating racial equality through the deliberate and authentic celebration of historically minoritised musicians of colour.

Ultimately, while the overwhelming success of one woman cannot possibly encompass or be representative of all feminist strides throughout the 90s, Mariah’s place in music is testament to a changing society, reflecting the climate of third wave feminism that her music is a product of; with her own success as a young, black woman, working as a powerful social actor, paving the way for others.

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Wells, A 2001, ‘Nationality, Race and Gender on the American Pop Charts: What Happened in the ‘90s?,’ Popular Music and Society, vol. 25, no. 1, 221-231.

Dibben, N 2002, ‘Constructions of Femininity in 1990s Girl-Group Music,’ Feminism Psychology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 168-175.

 Springer, K 2007, ‘Divas, Evil Black Bitches, and Bitter Black Women – African-American women in postfeminist and post-civil rights popular culture’ in Brunsdon, C & Spigel, L, Feminist Television Criticism: A Reader, 1^st edn, McGraw-Hill Education, UK, pp. 71 – 91.

Lister, L 2008, ‘Divafication: The Deification of Modern Female Pop Stars,’ Popular Music and Society, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 1-10.

Ganz, C 2001, Mariah Carey – Biography, Rolling Stone, viewed 20 May 2016.
<http://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/mariah-carey/biography>

Ross, L 2011, The Origin of the Term Woman of Colour, Womanist Musings, viewed 23 May 2016.
<http://www.womanistmusings.com/origin-of-term-woman-of-colour/>